Longitudinal impact of psychosocial status on children's mental health in the context of COVID-19 pandemic restrictions.

Emerging research suggests that the prevalence of child and adolescent mental health problems has increased considerably during the COVID-19 crisis. However, there have been few longitudinal studies on children's mental health issues according to their social determinants in this context, especially in Europe. Our aim was to investigate the association between family socioeconomic status (SES) and children' mental health during the period of school closure due to COVID-19. Longitudinal data came from 4575 children aged 8-9 years old in 2020 and participating in the ELFE population-based birth cohort that focuses on children's health, development and socialization. Parents completed the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) when children were (a) 5 years of age and (b) 9 years of age, which corresponded to the period of school closure due to the COVID-19 pandemic in France. We retrieved data from the ELFE cohort collected on children from birth to age 5 years (birth, 1 year, 2 years, 3,5 years and 5 years). Socioeconomic status (SES) was measured based on information obtained when the child was 5 years old. Data were analyzed using multinomial logistic regression models. Children's elevated levels of symptoms of Attention-deficit/Hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) during the period of school closure were significantly associated with prior low family SES (aOR 1.26, 95% CI 1.08-1.48). Children's elevated symptoms of hyperactivity/inattention and of emotional symptoms were associated with decline in income during the COVID crisis (respectively, aOR 1.38, 95% CI 1.16-1.63 and aOR 1.23, 95% CI 1.01-1.51). Moreover, when testing interactions, a low prior SES was significantly associated with a higher risk of emotional symptoms aOR 1.54 (1.07-2.21), only for children whose families experienced a decline in income, while gender, parental separation and prior mental health difficulties were not associated. This study underlines the impact of the financial crisis related to the COVID-19 epidemic on children's mental health. Both pre-existing family SES before lockdown and more proximal financial difficulties during the COVID crisis were negatively associated with children's psychological difficulties during the period of school closure. The pandemic appears to exacerbate mental health problems in deprived children whose families suffer from financial difficulties.

Socioeconomic inequalities of Long COVID: a retrospective population-based cohort study in the United Kingdom.

OBJECTIVES: To estimate the risk of Long COVID by socioeconomic deprivation and to further examine the inequality by sex and occupation. DESIGN: We conducted a retrospective population-based cohort study using data from the ONS COVID-19 Infection Survey between 26 April 2020 and 31 January 2022. This is the largest nationally representative survey of COVID-19 in the UK with longitudinal data on occupation, COVID-19 exposure and Long COVID. SETTING: Community-based survey in the UK. PARTICIPANTS: A total of 201,799 participants aged 16 to 64 years and with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: The risk of Long COVID at least 4 weeks after SARS-CoV-2 infection by index of multiple deprivation (IMD) and the modifying effects of socioeconomic deprivation by sex and occupation. RESULTS: Nearly 10% (n = 19,315) of participants reported having Long COVID. Multivariable logistic regression models, adjusted for a range of variables (demographic, co-morbidity and time), showed that participants in the most deprived decile had a higher risk of Long COVID (11.4% vs. 8.2%; adjusted odds ratio (aOR): 1.46; 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.34, 1.59) compared to the least deprived decile. Significantly higher inequalities (most vs. least deprived decile) in Long COVID existed in healthcare and patient-facing roles (aOR: 1.76; 95% CI: 1.27, 2.44), in the education sector (aOR: 1.68; 95% CI: 1.31, 2.16) and in women (aOR: 1.56; 95% CI: 1.40, 1.73) than men (aOR: 1.32; 95% CI: 1.15, 1.51). CONCLUSIONS: This study provides insights into the heterogeneous degree of inequality in Long COVID by deprivation, sex and occupation. These findings will help inform public health policies and interventions in incorporating a social justice and health inequality lens.

Social justice and the judicial interpretation of international equal protection law

Social justice is turning into an international concern. This development is a response to the continuous rise of socioeconomic inequality – the gap between the rich and the poor –growing in several OECD member states since the 1970s. International human rights law (IHRL) presently only establishes a weak normative framework regarding social justice. This article argues that the full potential of this framework has still not been activated by international human rights adjudication. There are several reasons for this: a complex history of ideas suggesting little common understanding of the notion of social justice, the focus of international human rights adjudication on individual rather than constitutional justice, and the priority of liberty rights over equality rights. Yet, the domination of the liberal over the social in international human rights adjudication has started to change. The article shows how the social justice concern is beginning to be incorporated into IHRL by judicial interpretation of international equal protection and non-discrimination law (international equal protection law, IEPL). Integrating the social justice concern into IEPL is a legitimate yet transformative step as it increases judicial discretion at the international level. More than many other human rights, socioeconomic equality is highly context-specific and depends on a complex factual assessment of the local circumstances. This exacerbates the institutional legitimacy challenge levelled against international human rights courts. However, the article argues that the legitimacy challenge can be alleviated by focusing more on procedural rather than a substantive international review.

Leaving No Women Behind: Evaluating the Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Livelihood Outcomes in Kenya and Ethiopia.

The SARS-CoV-2 pandemic has revolutionised our lives, bringing with it the twin crises of illness and the need for an optimal mix of policies to alleviate its impact on the population. There needs to be more evidence on the effects of the pandemic on livelihood outcomes, including an understanding of whether female-headed families in low-income countries fare worse than their male-headed counterparts during pandemics. Using high-frequency phone surveys conducted in Ethiopia and Kenya, we examine the aggregate impact of the pandemic on income and consumption losses, as well as food insecurity. The empirical analysis estimates linear probability models that relate livelihood outcomes with household headship and other socioeconomic characteristics as controls. Overall, the pandemic increased the likelihood of food insecurity while decreasing income and consumption, particularly among female-headed households. In Kenya, living in a female-headed home increased the possibility of an adult going without food by about 10%, an adult skipping a meal by about 9.9%, and a child missing a meal by about 17% in the seven days preceding the telephone survey. In Ethiopia, living in a female-headed household increased the likelihood of an adult going hungry, skipping a meal, and running out of food by about 24.35%, 18.9%, and 26.7%, respectively. Salient pre-existing socioeconomic inequalities further exacerbated the effects of the pandemic on livelihoods. The findings have important implications for public policy and preparations by governments and other organisations interested in developing suitable gender-sensitive measures to lessen the impact of future pandemics in low- and middle-income countries.

Culture and Health: Recent Developments and Future Directions.

Evidence of cultural differences in relationships and emotions has accumulated over the past few decades. As findings on cultural differences in psychological processes have accumulated, there has been growing interest in investigating whether they have implications for other phenomena such as health. Using scientific advances from the MIDUS and MIDJA studies, both publicly available, we examine links between culture and health. We first briefly review the accumulated evidence on cultural influences on health correlates of psychosocial factors. We then feature two recent developments - a more micro-level perspective on biological factors that may be involved in the culture and health linkage, and a more macro-level view of socioeconomic inequality, which also matters for health. Both perspectives inform the pathways through which health effects occur. Finally, we conclude our review by highlighting the changing historical contexts surrounding these cross-cultural investigations. Specifically, we draw attention to widening of economic inequality across cultures and the world-wide COVID-19 pandemic. These happenings bring notable implications for future research on health across cultural contexts.

Cambodia's Response to COVID-19 and its Socioeconomic Dimensions

Cambodia is among the countries with the lowest incidence rate of reported COVID-19 cases. However, the global economic turmoil is generating deep economic and social implications within its borders. This chapter discusses the emerging socioeconomic challenges along with the government intervention in response to the new scenario. The macroeconomic analysis covers the main channels whereby the Cambodian economy is deteriorating and discusses how the country's rebound is subject to the performance of its major allies. Likewise, the chapter delves into the microeconomic effects, emphasising the subsequent social ramifications, especially among the most vulnerable demographics. It is argued that the current government measures are insufficient to mitigate the growing poverty levels and needs of the population. © 2022 by World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd.

Future Trends

Given the cultural continuity and persistence of hyper-masculine groups such as outlaw bikers, what is the future likely to hold within the context of contemporary warband societies? With an arguably widening gaps of inequality, increased social tension and an ongoing COVID-19 epidemic, how will young men and women respond? This chapter explores the future for outlaw biker clubs through the concept of the outlaw biker/ community contract, and socioeconomic inequality. It will explore the trends of internationalisation and posit the increased trajectory of the American-styled bikers and Australian clubs impacting the major groups in Europe and post-Soviet Eastern Europe, Aotearoa New Zealand, and Asia. This chapter will discuss territoriality and the violence that often follows such moves of internationalisation and assess the implications for conflict. Lastly, there will be some discussion on the outlaw biker/military nexus where clubs are actively recruiting combat veterans and current serving military personnel.

The Unequal Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Infant Health.

The COVID-19 pandemic has taken a large toll on population health and well-being. We examine the consequences of prenatal exposure for infant health, through which the pandemic may have lasting intergenerational effects. We examine multiple pathways by which the pandemic shaped birth outcomes and socioeconomic disparities in these consequences. Analysis of more than 3.5 million birth records in California with universal information on COVID infection among persons giving birth at the time of delivery reveals deep inequalities in infection by education, race/ethnicity, and place-based socioeconomic disadvantage. COVID infection during pregnancy, in turn, predicts a large increase in the probability of preterm birth, by approximately one third. At the population level, a surprising reduction in preterm births during the first months of the pandemic was followed by an increase in preterm births during the surge in COVID infections in the winter of 2021. Whereas the early-pandemic reduction in preterm births benefited primarily highly educated mothers, the increase in preterm births during the winter infection surge was entirely concentrated among mothers with low levels of schooling. The COVID-19 pandemic is expected to exacerbate U.S. inequality in multiple ways. Our findings highlight a particularly enduring pathway: the long-term legacy of prenatal exposure to an unequal pandemic environment.

Financial Reasons for Working beyond the Statutory Retirement Age: Risk Factors and Associations with Health in Late Life.

Despite an increasing trend of working life prolongation, little is known about the risk factors for financial reasons for working beyond the statutory retirement age (SRA), and how these reasons relate to health. The present study examined (1) the determinants of working beyond the SRA, (2) the workers' self-reported reasons for working beyond the SRA, and (3) the association between these reasons and health in late life. Cross-sectional data of 1241 individuals from the Swiss survey "Vivre/Leben/Vivere" were analyzed. The results showed that people with a low level of education and with a low income have an 80% higher risk of working beyond the SRA for financial reasons than for other reasons (p < 0.001). Moreover, self-rated health was not significantly associated with working beyond the SRA for financial reasons but was significantly associated with education and income (p < 0.01). In conclusion, while previous studies have already identified financial difficulties as one important reason for working beyond the SRA, the present study indicated the socioeconomic factors that are crucial for increasing the risk for working beyond the SRA. Thus, our results help to guide the adaptation of social policies for better maintaining and promoting the health of particularly vulnerable older workers.

Municípios in the Time of Covid-19 in Brazil: Socioeconomic Vulnerabilities, Transmission Factors and Public Policies.

This paper aims at identifying the Covid-19 infection and mortality risk factors in Brazil during the pandemic's first wave. Three groups of variables are considered: socioeconomic and health vulnerabilities, factors related to the virus transmission channels (mobility and density) and the effects of the policy responses. The analysis at the level of all 5,570 municipalities, drawing on a matching of different statistical and administrative databases, returns three main results. First, structurally vulnerable populations are hardest hit-non-white, poor, in poor health, favela residents and informal workers-showing the impact of socioeconomic inequalities. Second, we highlight some policy repercussions. The Auxilio Emergencial (emergency cash transfer) has had a mitigating effect in communities with relatively more informal workers. Finally, Covid-19 has hit hardest in municipalities that are more pro-Bolsonaro. The president's rhetoric and attitudes may have prompted his supporters to adopt more risky behaviour, suffer the consequences and infect others. Supplementary Information: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1057/s41287-021-00487-w.

Cet article cherche à identifier les facteurs de risque de contracter le COVID-19 et d'en mourir durant la première vague de la pandémie au Brésil. Trois groupes de variables sont considérés : les facteurs socio-économiques et sanitaires, ceux liés aux canaux de transmission du virus (la mobilité et la densité) et les effets des réponses politiques. Réalisée sur l'ensemble des 5 570 municipalités et basée sur l'appariement de différentes bases de données statistiques et administratives, l'analyse fait ressortir trois principaux résultats. En premier lieu, les populations structurellement vulnérables sont les plus touchées ­ non-blancs, pauvres, de santé précaire, habitants des favelas, informels - renforçant l'effet des inégalités socioéconomiques. En deuxième lieu, nous mettons en évidence l'influence des politiques. L'Auxilio emergencial (transfert monétaire d'urgence) a un effet atténuateur dans les localités ayant relativement plus de travailleurs informels. Enfin, le CoVid-19 fait plus de ravages dans les municipalités plus favorables à Bolsonaro. Le discours du président induit ses partisans à adopter plus souvent des comportements à risque et à en subir les conséquences.

The Covid-19 pandemic and its impact on socioeconomic inequality in psychological distress in the United Kingdom: An update.

This paper extends earlier on socioeconomic inequality in mental health, measured by the General Health Questionnaire, to include the second national lockdown up to March 2021.

The first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic and its impact on socioeconomic inequality in psychological distress in the UK.

We use data from the UK Household Longitudinal Study (UKHLS) to compare measures of socioeconomic inequality in psychological distress, measured by the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ), before (Waves 9 and the Interim 2019 Wave) and during the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic (April to July 2020). Based on a caseness measure, the prevalence of psychological distress increased from 18.5% to 27.7% between the 2019 Wave and April 2020 with some reversion to earlier levels in subsequent months. Also, there was a systematic increase in total inequality in the Likert GHQ-12 score. However, measures of relative socioeconomic inequality have not increased. A Shapley-Shorrocks decomposition analysis shows that during the peak of the first wave of the pandemic (April 2020) other socioeconomic factors declined in their share of socioeconomic inequality, while age and gender account for a larger share. The most notable increase is evident for younger women. The contribution of working in an industry related to the COVID-19 response played a small role at Wave 9 and the Interim 2019 Wave, but more than tripled its share in April 2020. As the first wave of COVID-19 progressed, the contribution of demographics declined from their peak level in April and chronic health conditions, housing conditions, and neighbourhood characteristics increased their contributions to socioeconomic inequality.

Socioeconomic inequality in child mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic: First evidence from China.

BACKGROUND: There are increasing concerns that the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic will disproportionately affect socioeconomically disadvantaged children. However, there lacks empirical evidence on socioeconomic inequalities in child mental health and associated factors. METHODS: We conducted a population-based online survey in 21,526 children in China, when children were confined at home for nearly two months during the pandemic. We assessed child mental health problems with the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ). Parental education level and provincial gross domestic product (GDP) per capita were treated as proxies for individual- and population-level socioeconomic status (SES), respectively. Lifestyle and family environment factors included sleep disturbances, physical activity, screen time, primary caregiver, parental mental health, and harsh parenting. RESULTS: Of the children, 32.31% demonstrated mental health problems. Parental education from the highest (undergraduate and above) to the lowest (middle school and below) increased the adjusted odds ratio(aOR) for child mental health problems by 42% (aOR, 1.42; 95% CI, 1.29-1.57); provincial GDP per capita (RMB) from the highest (>¥100K) to the lowest (≤¥70K) increased aOR by 41% (aOR, 1.41; 95% CI%, 1.28-1.55). Sleep disturbances, physical activity <1 h/day, media exposure ≥2 h/day, non-parental care, poor parental mental health, and harsh parenting were independently associated with increased child mental health problems, regardless of SES. LIMITATIONS: The potential sampling bias, subjective measures, and the cross-sectional design are the main limitations. CONCLUSION: The first evidence from China suggests socioeconomic inequality in child mental health during the pandemic. As unhealthy lifestyle and unfavorable family environment are contributory factors, prioritized interventions are needed to reduce socioeconomic inequality in child mental health problems.

Pandemic precarity: COVID-19 is exposing and exacerbating inequalities in the American heartland.

Crises lay bare the social fault lines of society. In the United States, race, gender, age, and education have affected vulnerability to COVID-19 infection. Yet, consequences likely extend far beyond morbidity and mortality. Temporarily closing the economy sent shock waves through communities, raising the possibility that social inequities, preexisting and current, have weakened economic resiliency and reinforced disadvantage, especially among groups most devastated by the Great Recession. We address pandemic precarity, or risk for material and financial insecurity, in Indiana, where manufacturing loss is high, metro areas ranked among the hardest hit by the Great Recession nationally, and health indicators stand in the bottom quintile. Using longitudinal data (n = 994) from the Person to Person Health Interview Study, fielded in 2019-2020 and again during Indiana's initial stay-at-home order, we provide a representative, probability-based assessment of adverse economic outcomes of the pandemic. Survey-weighted multivariate regressions, controlling for preexisting inequality, find Black adults over 3 times as likely as Whites to report food insecurity, being laid off, or being unemployed. Residents without a college degree are twice as likely to report food insecurity (compared to some college), while those not completing high school (compared to bachelor's degree) are 4 times as likely to do so. Younger adults and women were also more likely to report economic hardships. Together, the results support contentions of a Matthew Effect, where pandemic precarity disproportionately affects historically disadvantaged groups, widening inequality. Strategically deployed relief efforts and longer-term policy reforms are needed to challenge the perennial and unequal impact of disasters.